CHAPTER VII.
Notes on the Texts and the Commentary.
I. The Texts.
The editions do not claim to be diplomatic reprints. No distinction has been made, for instance, between the long and the ordinary
s, and it would have been impossible to reproduce the variant forms
of r or of capital letters. The J generally used in the MSS. as the
capital of i and j has been rendered in names by J when denoting a
consonant, by I in the few cases where it stands for a vowel, but
is retained when used as a figure. Apart from details of this nature
the aim has been to present, within the limits indicated in the
sequel, as exact a text as possible, and the greatest care has been
taken to ascertain the correct readings. This task is not always
quite easy, because the writing in the MSS. is in some places rather
faded or damaged by damp or the like, and also because, though the
scribes, especially those of the Subsidy of 1319, were generally very
careful, malformed letters occur here and there, which are sometimes
difficult to judge. A number of readings are for these reasons open
to some doubt or may be differently interpreted.
In the return for the Subsidy of 1292 the narrow space available
sometimes rendered it necessary to insert parts of longer entries above
the line; this has not been noticed in the edition. A few corrections
made by the scribe, chiefly in the Subsidy of 1292, have been tacitly
introduced into the text. Missing letters have in a few cases been
added between round brackets. Illegible parts of names have
sometimes been supplied between square brackets, but only where
the correct reading seems to be beyond doubt. Otherwise illegible
letters have been replaced by a dot (full stop). A few clerical
errors, chiefly in the names of taxpayers, have been corrected,
the substituted letter or letters and the MS. form being placed
between square brackets. Additions, generally in small type, made
by the editor in the margins or elsewhere, are likewise placed between square brackets, the only exception being the figures put in
front of entries to indicate the number of the taxpayer in the list.
Abbreviations have been extended when there seems to be no
doubt as regards the full form, the letters supplied being italicized.
Superscribed letters have likewise been italicized, as "-ham" when
the MS. has "-hm" with a superscribed a. Abbreviated font-names
have nearly always been extended in the reprint of the Subsidy of
1319, because the Latin ablative ending generally shows that the
full name was Latinized. In the earlier Subsidy, where the names are
in the nominative, it is generally impossible to determine if a
French (English) or a Latin form is at the back of the abbreviation,
and the abbreviated form is mostly retained, though an apostrophe
has been substituted for the various abbreviation-marks in the MS.
An exception has been made for some such cases as Ad', Th', Wat',
which are printed Adam, Thomas, Water.
Especially in the return for the Subsidy of 1319 the final letter of
surnames is often provided with a mark or flourish, which sometimes doubtless indicates abbreviation. Thus a short stroke through
the stem of a letter or above an n is generally a sign of abbreviation
for -e. Local surnames ending in -feld, -ford, -heth, -ton, -worth and
the like are frequently written with a final -e, as Canefelde, Stebenhuthe, Prestone, Wandlesworthe, and the second member of these
names was evidently dissyllabic. No doubt a form Canefeld with a
stroke through the d was meant for Canefelde. More difficult to
judge are cases where this mark is used in other kinds of surnames.
Hosebond is from earlier Husbonde, and Husebonde actually occurs
in the text (Tower 41). Here an extension of Hosebond with a
stroke through the d is obviously justified. The same may be said
of a name like le Freynsh (Cheap 154) with a stroke through the
h. But the mark is also found occasionally in surnames such as
Nasard (Dowg), Lombard (Bish), Edward (Cand), Huberd (BreadSt),
Reynald (Cheap), Smyth (Cheap), Hereward (FarrE). It is possible
that the mark is here a mere flourish, and it has been replaced by an
apostrophe. Yet there are not a few similar names where a final
-e is actually written: Hoseberne (LimeSt), Kynge (ColemSt),
Jurdane, Redhode (FarrI), Crosse (Bill, Tower), Hoode, Barette
(Castle). It might be suggested that the -e in these cases is "inorganic" and indicates that final -e had begun to be dropped. But
it is equally possible that the -e is an English dative ending due to
the preceding De and the ablative form of the font-name. Also the
-e in local surnames such as (de) Canefelde, (de) Wandlesworthe may
quite well be looked upon as a living ME dative ending.
Another common sign is the loop sometimes used as an abbreviation-mark for -es, -is. In the Subsidy of 1292 it seems to be used
only after -k and chiefly in the portions written by hand 2. In the
Subsidy of 1319 it frequently occurs, but is used more often by
some scribes than by others. It is found only after final f (here
regularly), g, k (c), r, s, t. After r it occurs only in the returns for
Bas, Bill, Crip, Aldersg, FarrI and Tower, chiefly in English
occupational surnames like Nailer. In the majority of cases the
sign is apparently a mere flourish, which might be disregarded.
But it represents Lat -is in saccis Cand 25 (marginal note) and in
Pontis in the heading of the return for Bridge. It has been taken to
represent -es in Paskes (CripE 11), since that is the form of the
surname in another source. In some cases it is probably meant
as an abbreviation-mark for -e, as very likely in Nailer' and the like.
But since it is impossible to decide what the mark stands for in
each case, it has been thought best to indicate it by an apostrophe.
It is to be noticed that an apostrophe represents this mark always
in 1319 S after f, g, k (c), t, and after r (in surnames) except in a
few names in -bur' (-bir') and Cauntebr' Cornh 37, which have not
been extended because the form of the full name is doubtful. Local
surnames in -ing are nearly always provided with this mark, which
may denote -e or -es or be a flourish simply. There are in the Subsidies no examples of the ending -inges, but that of 1292 has Dorkinge Qu 62, Haueringge CripE 1, and that of 1319 Rothingge,
Rothynge Cornh 60, Langb 30, also Berkyng Qu 6, Dorkyngg Castle 51.
In the reprint of 1319 S the common abbreviation for ur is extended to -our in names like Pestour, since this is the normal form
in this text.
In the Subsidy of 1292 the chief difficulty is to determine whether
the initial letter of names (font- and surnames) were intended to be
capitals or small letters. The scribe referred to in Chap. I as hand
1 is very careless about initials. He makes no obvious distinction
between W and w, and in the reprint W is normally used as an initial
of names. For some letters he has clearly distinguishable capitals
and small letters, as for a, b, c, d, e, g, m, n, r, t. Capitals are on
the whole more frequently used in font-names than in surnames,
but there is a good deal of difference in the use of the various letters.
Thus D, E, N, J, R alone are used in font-names (D 4 times, E
9 times, N 7 times, J and R about 150 times each), while in surnames
there are 6 J, one i, 20 R, 4 r, 5 D, 15 d, 9 E, 3 e, 6 N, 8 n. There are
in font-names 37 A, 8 a, in surnames 4 A, 13 a; in font-names
9 M, 5 m, in surnames 15 M, 23 m; in font-names 21 T, 13 t, in
surnames 5 T, some 30 t.
But C only once occurs in font-names (4 c), while in surnames
there are 25 C, over 75 c. B is found once in font-names, 2 or 3
times in surnames (fn. 1) , while there are 6 b in font-names, over 80 in
surnames. G occurs 14 times in font-names, once or twice in surnames, g 23 times in font-names, 21 in surnames.
But there are pairs of letters where the distinction between capital and small letter is often slight and it is difficult to say which is
meant. These letters are especially f, h, k, l, p, s. There are hardly
any indubitable examples of F or K, but a somewhat big form of
f and an f with a looped lower half may have been meant as
capitals and have been so rendered, and in one or two cases a
somewhat big k has been taken to be a capital. There is only one
indubitable case of P (Bill 17), but there are examples of a p with
a looped lower half, which has been rendered as P. There are
several indubitable cases of H in font-names, but also some where
it is difficult to say if H or h is meant. The capital has been
preferred here.
Most difficult are L(l) and S(s). Both L and l are used, but there
are intermediate variants which are difficult to judge; these have
been rendered by L. An L and intermediate variants between L
and l are found also in the French definite article (le, la). Here l
has been preferred in doubtful cases. There are two indubitable
examples of S (Dowg 8, 79), where special capital types are used.
It may be noted that the S of Dowg 79 is often found in the word
Summa in sums total. The ordinary s shows some variation in size
and has been rendered by S when written comparatively big. The
long s is sometimes looped at the bottom; this form is found also in
the interior of words, possibly somewhat smaller in size, but when
used as an initial it has been rendered by S.
The second scribe (hand 2) generally makes a clear distinction
between capitals and small letters and has capitals regularly in
font-names, while surnames not rarely have small initials. The
article is always le, la.
It might seem the simplest way would have been to have used
capitals as initials of names, at least font-names, throughout,
and this has been done in the Index of taxpayers and generally
when names are discussed in the Introduction. But after all the
initials form a characteristic, primitive feature of the Subsidy of
1292.
In the Subsidy of 1319 initials rarely give rise to doubt. As a rule
the initial of names was doubtless meant to be a capital. The De
placed before entries in the return for Walbrook is a sort of ligature of D and e or a D with an abbreviation-mark for e, and this
form is met with occasionally in other returns (see p. 7, foot-note).
In the reprint it is rendered by "De".
The abbreviations for solidus, denarius, obolus, and quadrans
have been somewhat simplified, "s.", "d." (or "den."), "o." (or
"ob."), "q." being used instead of the forms in the originals (an
s with a small semicircle or a flourish on top for solidus, a q with
a superscript a for quadrans, etc.). The abbreviation for marca in
1292 S is an m with a short stroke above (in the reprint "m."),
in 1319 S mr with a superscript a (in the reprint "mar."). Libra is
li. or lj. in the MSS. This distinction has been retained in the reprint.
II. The Commentary.
The chief aim of the Commentary is not to discuss MS. readings
or spellings and the like, though it has been used for that purpose
when necessary. The main object in view has been to identify, as
far as possible, the taxpayers and collect material calculated to
throw light on their occupation, social position, residence, and the
like, and further, to explain their names, especially their surnames.
The returns only rarely indicate the occupation of taxpayers and
still more rarely give other information on them. But it is often
possible by the help of contemporary material to identify them with
certainty or a great deal of probability, and so determine their
occupation and not rarely their residence. Naturally it is impossible
to find information on many taxpayers, especially small ones, but
for most wards it may be said that the majority can be identified.
For many taxpayers a great deal of information can be collected
from contemporary records, especially the Letter-Books, the Calendar of Wills, the Coroners and the Mayor's Rolls, and owing to
considerations of space it is only possible to include a small part of
the material collected. The principle in such cases has been to give
the earliest and the latest references and such as throw light on
occupation, residence and the like. In the cases where taxpayers of
1319 (or occasionally of 1292) are found also in the Subsidy of 1332,
a reference to the latter is regularly given, and since it is of interest
to compare the assessments of 1319 and 1332, those of 1332 are
indicated. If the ward of such a taxpayer is not stated he belonged
to the same ward as in 1319. In each case it is pointed out, for instance, if the taxpayer held important civic offices, as those of
sheriff, alderman or Mayor (fn. 1) , or, in the case of smaller taxpayers,
positions of trust, such as wardenships of crafts or the like. If a
taxpayer can be shown to have been the son or descendant of an
earlier London citizen, this has been indicated, and frequently
earlier bearers of a surname have been pointed out, because this
may have a bearing on the question if a taxpayer came of an old
London family or may have derived his surname from an earlier
London citizen. Information of this nature is of importance for
problems discussed in Chap. V.
For many taxpayers the available illustrative material is scanty.
Not rarely other sources provide only further instances of the name.
Thus many taxpayers can be identified with persons mentioned
in the Coroners Rolls, where the occupation is only occasionally
stated, and it may seem nothing much is gained by adducing one
or two further examples of the name. But even illustrative material
of such a kind is valuable as corroborating the readings of the
Subsidies, which are not always sufficiently clear. To take an
example, in the Subsidy of 1319 the surname of taxpayer no. 16
under Portsoken is partly illegible, so that only L . . el can be seen
clearly. In Coroners Rolls a person with the same font-name and
the surname Ladyl appears as a juror for Portsoken, and it is
obvious that he is to be identified with the taxpayer in Portsoken.
whose name was thus Ladel.
A definite identification can generally be made if a taxpayer
had a surname of a fairly unusual kind and a not too common fontname. Some surnames are so peculiar that they are sufficient for
an identification, even if the font-name is an ordinary one. It cannot
be doubted, for instance, that Richard Galopin [1292 S, Cordw 5] is
identical with Richard Galopyn 1302 Ann Lond. But many surnames
are of an extremely common kind, as occupational ones like Barber; Cordewaner, Mareschal, or some local ones like de Kent, de
Waltham. If the font-name was John or William or the like, a
safe identification with contemporary namesakes is often impossible,
but many persons even with such names can be identified with a
good deal of probability or even certainty, if there is agreement as
regards wards or the like.
In this connection it is to be noticed that in the period we are
concerned with surnames had not yet acquired a perfectly fixed
character. The font-name was still the chief name, and the surname
might show variation. We are therefore often justified in identifying
taxpayers in the rolls with persons who have different surnames in
other records.
It was quite common for a person with a real surname to be referred to occasionally by a designation for his trade or calling.
Richer de Refham, the later alderman and Mayor, is in the earliest
references called Richer le Botoner or le Mercer. This was practical
in his case, because there was also a Richer de Refham taverner,
recorded between 1300 and 1314. William le Teynturer [1292 S]
is clearly identical with W. de Medelane, dyer, in other records.
Nigel de Whatele [Aldersg 3] is often found in records, but his occupation is never stated. All we are told is that he was entrusted with
the keys of Aldersgate in 1321. Now a Nigel le Avener was sworn to
guard the gate of Aldersgate in 1310, and obviously he is identical
with N. de Whatele. There is only one other Nigel among taxpayers,
and he was a carpenter of Castle Baynard ward. Nigel de Whatele
was thus an oatmonger. Edward was a rare name, there being only
two persons so called in 1319 S. One was Edward de Nortffolk
[Langb 44], whose occupation is not indicated. It is probable that
he should be identified with Edward le Cordewaner, who was a
juror for Langb in 1336 ff. Many examples of this kind are noticed
in the commentary.
It was common in this period for an apprentice to be given the
surname of his master, but the original surname sometimes continued to be used alternatively or even in combination with the
master's surname. A good deal of material of this kind is collected
in the editor's paper Variation in Surnames (Lund, 1945). Thus
Adam Bekenisfeld [1292 S] is A. de Bekenesfeld called de Fulham
in his will and probably A. de Fulham the younger 1290 Pat. His
real surname was clearly de Bekenesfeld and de Fulham that of
his master. William le Faunt [1319 S] is clearly identical with W.
de Camerwelle called Lemfaunt 1325-6 and W. de Camerwelle
1307. In this case le Faunt (Lemfaunt) is the master's surname.
Sewal de Godesname [1319 S, Cheap 25] has not been found
elsewhere, but he must be identical with Sewal son of Sewal de
Sprenggewelle, who was an apprentice of Richard de Godesname of
Cheap. The font-name Sewal is only found here in the Subsidy.
In many cases the original surname of the apprentice is not known
but the agreement of his surname with that of his master indicates
that he had what for shortness' sake is called a master's surname.
There can be little doubt that Robert Podyfat, a former apprentice
of Roger Podyfat, had taken the surname of the latter, or that
Thomas de Bury [1319 S, Bridge], son-in-law of Roger de Bery
[1292 S, Bridge], was a former apprentice of his father-in-law and
took his surname.
The custom of transferring the master's surname on his apprentices must have been wide-spread. It follows that we must not conclude from the fact that two persons with the same surname and
occupation and of the same ward or even parish, but apparently
belonging to different generations, were necessarily father and
son or near relatives, though that was doubtless often the case.
We must always reckon with the possibility that the later bearer
of the surname was an apprentice who had taken over his master's
surname.
For other types of variation in surnames reference is made to the
above-mentioned paper.
If no definite identification can be suggested for a taxpayer,
nothing is said about him in the Commentary, apart from a note
on his surname, if one is necessary. If the surname is of the occupational kind and self-explanatory, it has generally been supposed
that his occupation was that suggested by his surname, and he is
omitted in the Commentary, but it must be remembered that
many occupational surnames were inherited and that the bearer
may have had a different occupation.
In the period under discussion it was not unusual for people to
change their occupation or combine two different lines of business.
At least two taxpayers of 1319 seem to have been bakers who
were also, or later became, cornmongers. Hosiers are not rarely
called alternatively drapers, (fn. 1) which probably indicates that they
were at the same time drapers or changed over to the drapery
business. Elias de Salle (FarrI 39), a mercer, was the apprentice of
a hatter. Craftsmen such as girdlers or coffrers did not always produce girdles or coffers (strong iron boxes) alone, but occasionally
might do other metal work. Thus we are told that Nicholas cofrarius
of London sold armour to the King in 1305-6 (C1). Saleman le Cofrer [Cheap 54] was a warden of coffrers in 1328, but he is styled
armourer in 1322. Richard le Coffrer [Cheap 172] made girdles.
Richard Bokskyn, saddler [FarrI 151] was the apprentice of a
fuster (saddletree-maker).
Many people are referred to in records as merchants. This term
included business men of various kinds, as mercers, drapers, vintners, fishmongers, stockfishmongers, and also general merchants.
A person called "merchant" in a record may quite well have been
particularly a fishmonger or a corder or the like.
A note must be added here on woolmongers. The wool-trade was
not in the hands of the woolmongers (or woolmen) proper alone,
but anybody with sufficient capital might buy and export a sack or
more of wool. In the lists of wool-exporters in 1271 ff. (Pat, RH,
etc.) persons of various callings are met with, pepperers, drapers,
vintners, corders and so on, and the same is true of lists from the
first half of the 14th century. If a taxpayer appears now and then
as a wool-exporter, it must not be concluded that his chief business
was that of a woolmonger.
On the principles followed in determining the residence of taxpayers something has been said in Chap. III.
The utmost brevity has been essential in the Commentary.
In references from one article to another in the same Subsidy a
taxpayer is usually designated only by his number in the ward,
the latter being indicated only if he is found under another ward.
The dates of the making and the enrolment of wills have generally
both been indicated, but if there is only a slight difference of dates
the year of enrolment alone has often been given.
Long names of London parishes have generally been shortened
if the parish belonged to the ward under discussion. Thus in the
Commentary on Vintry, St. Martin Beremanchurch is referred to
as St. Martin, St. Michael Paternoster Royal as St. Michael, in that
on Aldersgate, St. Botolph Aldersgate as St. Botolph and so on.
The word "apprentice" is generally abbreviated to "appr.". A
note such as "repr. Dowg." means "a representative of Dowgate."
A "master's surname" is one which an apprentice had taken over
from his master.
Etymological explanations are as brief as possible. They will
generally be found at the end of articles, separated from the preceding part by a dash. Thus in the commentary on 1292 S the note
on taxpayer no. 1 under Bridge (William de Lewes) ends with
"-Lewes Sx.", which indicates that the surname was taken from
Lewes in Sussex. Several surnames have had to be left unexplained,
among others those of some taxpayers of foreign origin.
The meaning of some occupational surnames or terms is disputed
or insufficiently clear, and it was impossible to deal with them in the
Commentary. They have therefore been relegated to an Appendix
placed before the Indices of taxpayers.